GRAMMAR NO. 12: Tell vs. Say

EXPLANATION

Say and tell have similar meanings. They both mean to communicate verbally with someone. But we often use them differently.

The simple way to think of say and tell is:

• You say something
• You tell someone something

You say something	You tell someone something
Ram said that he was tired.	Ram told Jane that he was tired.
Anthony says you have a new job.	Anthony tells me you have a new job.
Tara said: "I love you."	Tara told John that she loved him.

But, of course, it is not always so easy. Here are a few rules to help you.

Personal object
We usually follow tell with a personal object (the person that we are speaking to). We usually use say without a personal object:

• She told me that she loved John.
• She said that she loved John.
• He told everybody that he had to leave.
• He said that he had to leave.

Say "to someone"
With say, we sometimes use "to someone":

• He said to me that he was tired.
• Tara said to Ram that he had done very well.
• Anthony said to her, "I hope you come soon."
• "I'd like to sleep," she said to him quietly.

Direct speech
We can use say with direct speech. We use tell only with direct speech that is an instruction or information:

• Amanda said, "Hello John. How are you?"
• "That's great'" she said.
• He told her: "Open the door quietly."
• She told me, "I have never been to England."

We can use say with direct questions, but we cannot use tell:

• She said: "Do you love me?"
• The policeman said to the prisoner, "Where were you at 8pm?"

Reported speech
We can use say and tell to talk about reported information:

• She said that it was raining.
• She told me that she would call at 2pm.

Orders, advice

We use tell + object + infinitive for orders or advice:

• She told him to sit down.
• They told me not to wait.
• Tell Neil to have a holiday and forget her.

Phrases
Here are a few fixed phrases with tell. We cannot use say with these phrases:

• tell (someone) a story
• tell (someone) a lie
• tell (someone) the truth
• tell the future (= to know what the future will bring)
• tell the time (= know how to read a clock)

PRACTICE
http://unamsanantoniolab.com/eng/troublesomeverbs/saytell.htm
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/say-tell.html
http://specials.rediff.com/getahead/2007/oct/08quiz.htm
http://www.eslpartyland.com/quiz-center/saytell.htm
http://www.quia.com/jq/17862.html

GRAMMAR NO. 10: Direct vs. Indirect Speech

Many times, we need to express, not our direct opinion, but someone else's opinion. That is, we are not really transmitting the message but rather acting as a "representive" for someone else. There are 2 ways in English to do this: Direct speech and Indirect or Reported Speech


DIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech involves repeating the exact words that were pronounced by the other person. For example:

a) She said, "Today Alfonso will give his presentation"
or
b) "Today Alfonso will give his presentation", she said

This style detaches us from what the other person has said.


INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH

In indirect speech, we don't detach so much from what the other person said. It is true that we are using someone else's words, but it is also true that we incorporate this into our own discourse.

The most important reporting verb is to say, which can be followed or not by that. For example:

D: I am depressed
I: She said (that) she was depressed

Several questions must be taken into account when using reporting speech: changes in verb tenses and the use of the pragmatically appropriate reporting verb.

1) Changes in verb tenses

The most important grammatical aspect of Reported Speech is that several changes take place.

Present Simple -> Past Simple
She said, "It's cold" -> She said it was cold

Present Continuous -> Past Continuous
She said, "I'm teaching English" -> She said she was teaching English

Present Perfect Continuous -> Past Perfect Continuous
She said, "He has been eating noodles for almost an hour" -> She said he had been eating noodles for almost an hour

Past Simple -> Past Perfect
She said, "I was in Baltimore last week" -> She said she had been to Baltimore the previous week"

Past Continuous -> Past Perfect Continuous
She said, "I was taking a shower earlier" -> She said she had been taking a shower earlier

Past Perfect -> Past Perfect (NO CHANGE)
She said, "The class had already started" -> She said the class had already started

Past Perfect Continuous -> Past Perfect Continuous (NO CHANGE)
She said, "I'd already been running for 35 minutes" -> She said she had already been running for 35 minutes"

Modal verbs also change:

Will -> Would
She said, "I'll meet Carmen tomorrow" -> She said she would meet Carmen the following day"

Can -> Could
She said, "I can email you the images" -> She said she could email me the images

Must -> Had to
She said, "I must concentrate now" -> She said she had to concentrate then

Shall -> Should
She said, "Where shall we go today?" -> She asked where we should go that day

May -> Might
She said, "May I open a new browser?" -> She asked if she might open a new browser


2) Changes in adverbs of time and personal pronouns

When reporting speech, we need to accommodate intratextual references, that is: time and personal pronouns. We need to correctly indicate the person in pronouns. For example:
She said, "I can email you the images" -> She said she could email me the images
We must also accommodate for time, and always depending on the new relation established between the time when we report the speech and the time this speech was uttered. For example:
She said, "Where shall we go today?" -> She asked where we should go that day
is correct, but
She said, "Where shall we go today?" -> She asked where we should go today
can be equally correct if we are reporting speech on the same day that speech was first pronounced.


3) Reporting verbs

The most common verb to be used in Reported Speech is to say. But English uses many other verbs. Why? Well, because by using these verbs we "explain" what the speech was about. For example, if we report a question, we should use to ask, if we report a command, we should use to tell. English likes to be very detailed when it comes to meaning (no doubt there are so many different verbs to express the action of walking and similar, for example, walk, stroll, go, come, leap, hop, jog, jump, skip, run, etc. This semantic specification is characteristic of the language). An important thing to remember is that these reporting verbs connect the speech we are reporting in a different way. See:

A1: Would you like to go out with me?
A2: He asked me if I would like to go out with him

B1: When should I pick you up?
B2: He asked me when he should pick me up

C1: Don't be sad about that
C2: He told me not to be sad about that

Below you will find a list of these reporting verbs and how they establish the connection:

verb + object + infinitive
advise
encourage
invite
remind
warn
e.g. He advised me not to take the bus

verb + infinitive
agree
decide
offer
promise
refuse
threaten
e.g. He agreed to come with me

verb + (that)
admit
agree
decide
deny
explain
insist
promise
recommend
suggest
e.g. He admitted (that) he was wrong

verb + ing
deny
recommend
suggest
e.g. He denied having called me on Wednesday

verb + object + preposition + ing
accuse
blame
congratulate
e.g. He congratulated me for working so hard

verb + preposition + gerund
apologize
insist
e.g. He apologized for not calling me on Wednesday


FURTHER EXPLANATION AND PRACTICE
Take a quiz here: http://esl.about.com/library/quiz/blgrquiz_reported1.htm
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/reported.htm
http://www.tolearnenglish.com/cgi2/myexam/liaison.php?liaison=_direct_
http://www.eslpartyland.com/quiz-center/rptspeech1.htm

GRAMMAR NO. 9: "like" vs. "as"

A. Making comparisons: "like" and "as" has the same meaning

We use like and as to make comparisons. In this respect, they have exactly the same meaning. The difference is that like is a preposition and as is a conjunction. That is, like is used before a noun and as is used before a verb/clause. For example:

• He speaks like a native speaker
• He speaks as a native speaker would do

Sometimes, English speakers use like for both uses, but that is only possible in informal English.

• We play football like champions do

B. To express what the role/function of a person/thing is: "as"

Another use of as is to say what the role/function of a person/thing is.

• He started to work as a carpenter.
• She used the tapestry as a decoration in her living room.

*** VERY IMPORTANT
Functions A. and B. can be, sometimes, difficult to distinguish. Pay attention to the following examples:

• As your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am your boss.)
• Like your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am not your boss, but he/she and I have similar attitudes.)

C. "As if"

In English we also use as if to make comparisons. However it has a few distinct characteristics to its use:

1. The verb after AS IF is always in the past subjunctive, no matter what tense the sentence is.

2. If the verb BE directly follows AS IF, we use were for all personal pronouns.

• He looks as if he knew the answer.

(The verbs LOOKS indicates this sentence is in the present – but the verb after AS IF – knew - is in the past subjuntive).

• She walks as if she were a supermodel.

(The verb after AS IF – be – has been changed to were and not was).

• He boarded the airplane as if he were a seasoned traveller.
• He spends money as if he owned a bank.

D. Other uses of "like" and "as"

LIKE:

VARIANT MEANING	EXAMPLES
OF THE SAME FORM (adj.)	I haven't seen a like model. We collect trains, cars, buses and like models.
OF THE SAME FORM (noun)	I haven't seen its like. We collect model t trains, cars, buses and their like.
CHARACTERISTIC (prep.)	It would be like him to forget my birthday.
SIMILAR OR COMPARABLE (prep.)	There is nothing like a tall cold drink.
EXAMPLE (adv.)	You could take up a hobby, like fishing, hiking or cycling.
SIMILAR OR COMPARABLE (adv.)	He was a hippie-like guy with a tie-dye T-shirt.
INCLINED (idiom–prep.)	Do you feel like going to a movie?
PROMISE / INDICATIVE (idiom- prep.)	It (the sky) looks like rain today.
REQUEST-PREFER (idiom–verb)	I'd like you to come with us.
SUIT YOUR PREFERENCE (idiom–verb)	You can come or you can go as you like.

Informal - Like

ATTENTION GETTER (interjection)	Like, has anyone seen my cell phone lying around?
HESITATOR (uh.. or well...)	We were more... like... borrowing his car.
INTRODUCE REPORTED SPEECH	He's like, "You're totally wrong, " and I'm like, "No, way!"
AN EQUAL (idiom)	We haven't seen the likes of him before.
AS IF (conj.)	I felt like I could stay there forever. (informal for as if)

AS:

VARIANT MEANING	EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE (adv.)	Some flowers, as the rose, require a lot of care.
CONSIDERED TO BE (adv.)	We view the church and state as two separate entities.
IN THE MANNER (adv.)	He paid for the room and dinner as agreed. (as we had agreed.)
AT THE TIME (conj)	Please pay as you leave.
WITH THE PURPOSE (conj.)	The speaker spoke so convincingly as to rally everyone to unite.
SINCE / BECAUSE (conj.)	As you are up, will you please get me a glass of water.
THOUGH (conj.)	Smart as he may be, he forgot to consider his own weaknesses.
THAT (pronoun)	I have had the same problem as you have.
TO THE EXTENT (idiom.)	As far as I know, we still aren't done yet.
WHILE (idiom.)	As long as he is here, we'll never have peace!
IN ITS CURRENT CONDITION (idiom.)	I bought the car as is. (in a non-negotiable, no-guarantee condition)
ALSO (idiom.)	They are resourceful, intelligent as well as compassionate.
IN RESPECT TO (idiom.)	As for traveling to the war-zone, I wouldn't advise it.
BEGINNING (idiom.)	As of April 1st, we are no longer accepting credit cards

PRACTICE
1. An easy one: http://www.grammar.cl/Games/Like_vs_As.htm
2. Another short one: http://www.better-english.com/grammar/aslike.htm
2. Lots of exercises to choose from: http://www.tolearnenglish.com/cgi2/myexam/liaison.php?liaison=_as-like_

GRAMMAR NO. 8: Numbers

Let's review numbers in English here

Let's practice listening to English numbers here

Let's practice writing numbers here

More exercises:

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/numbers/exercises

The date

http://www.agendaweb.org/vocabulary/numbers.html

The hundreds

http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/vocabulary/vocabulary-numbers.asp

Learn easily with a game!

GRAMMAR NO. 7: Too/either, So/neither

EXPLANATION

Too/either and so/neither are used to express our agreement to what another person has said.

Too is used when the verb is in the affirmative form. For example:

A: I have a red Ferrari

B: I have one, too

Either is used when the verb is in the negative form. For example:

A: I don't have a Ferrari

B: I don't have one either

But in English, we don't need to use long replies to express our agreement. This is not necessary because our agreement is with the entire sentence, so we use an auxiliary:

do/does when the verb is in the simple present

are/is when the original verb is in the present continuous

will when the original verb is in the future

have/has when the original verb is in a perfective tense

a modal when the original verb uses a modal, etc.

Too/so are used when we agree in the affirmative. For example:

A: I have an SUV (sport utility vehicle, a family car)

B: I have one too OR So do I

Either/neither are used when we agree in the negative. For example:

A: I don't have a bike

B: I don't have one either OR Neither do I

When we use so/neither, the verb must go in the affirmative form and the order of the sentence takes the form of a question. More examples:

So must I

Neither will they

So should I

Neither are we

So is she

Neither are Peter and Susan

So do I

Neither will he

So can we

Neither could they

Can you find the first part of the aforementioned phrases with so and neither?

IMPORTANT!!!

So, too, either and neither have other functions in English. We will study them in the following sessions.

PRACTICE

http://www.eslbee.com/cobaq/quizzes/13_so_too_neither.htm

http://www.eflnet.com/grammar/soneithertut.php

http://www.eflnet.com/grammar/soneither1.php

http://www.learn-english-today.com/lessons/lesson_contents/so_neither-ex.htm

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-49198.php

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-68857.php

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-57421.php

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-69398.php

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-67793.php

http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-58137.php

http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/quizshow.php?title=lesson-76-too-so-either-neither&quesnum=1

GRAMMAR NO. 2: The, a, an or nothing

EXPLANATION

In our session today we will learn when to use "the", "a/an" or just no article at all. 

Some general rules on when to use: A, An, The or Nothing

* a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants. For example:

She has a dog.
I work in a factory.

* an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels (a,e,i,o,u). For example:

Can I have an apple?
She is an English teacher.

* the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know). For example:

The car over there is fast.
The teacher is very good, isn't he?

* The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the". For example:

I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms.
I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good.

* DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States".

He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier.
They live in northern British Columbia.

* Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas. For example:

My country borders on the Pacific Ocean

* DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general. For example:

I like Russian tea.
She likes reading books.

* DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport. For example:

He has breakfast at home.
I go to university.
He comes to work by taxi.

PRACTICE

1. Initial practice here

2. A little bit more difficult here

3. For more advanced students here

4. Let's review here

5. More general exercises here 

6. Articles in context here

7. More here

8. "The Coffin Door" here

9. "Eggs and Pancakes" here

10. "Jane meets boys" here

11. "Joe's Day" here

12. "Laptops" here

13. "Student Responsibilities" here

14. "Snow??" here

Review

http://a4esl.org/q/h/grammar.html

http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/Grammar/Grammar-articles.asp

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/artikel.htm